How to Handle College Deferrals, Waitlists Rejections

You worked hard in high school to earn high grades. You put in the time to research and visit colleges. You studied for and did well on important standardized tests. And you carefully completed and submitted all of your college applications. Unfortunately, all of that effort doesn’t guarantee an acceptance letter, especially if you’re applying to some of the country’s most selective colleges. Realize, however, that you can take steps to improve your admission chances even if your application has been deferred, waitlisted, and in some cases, rejected. You’ve Been Deferred. What Now? Applying to college through an Early Action or Early Decision option is definitely a good idea if you know what school you want to attend, for your chances of admission are likely to be significantly higher than if you apply through regular admission. Students who apply early receive one of three possible outcomes: an acceptance, a rejection, or a deferral. A deferral indicates that the admissions folks thought your application was competitive for their school, but not strong enough to receive an early acceptance. As a result, the college is deferring your application so that they can compare you with the regular applicant pool. This limbo can be frustrating, but it isn’t time to despair. Plenty of deferred students do, in fact, get admitted with the regular applicant pool, and there are several steps you can take when deferred  to maximize your chances of being admitted. In most cases, it can be to your advantage to write a letter to the college to reaffirm your interest in the school and present any new information that strengthens your application.   How to Deal With College Waitlists Being placed on a waitlist can be even more frustrating than a deferral. Your first step is to learn what it means to be on a waitlist. Youve essentially become a back-up for the college in case it misses its enrollment targets. Its not an enviable position to be in: typically you wont learn that youve gotten off of a waitlist until after May 1st, the day high school seniors make their  final college decisions.   As with college deferrals, there are steps you can take to help you get off a waitlist. The first, of course, is to accept a place on the waitlist. This is certainly something you should do if you are still interested in attending the school that waitlisted you.   Next, unless the college tells you not to, you should write a letter of continued interest. A good letter of continued interest  should be positive and polite, restate your enthusiasm for the college, and, if applicable, present any new information that could strengthen your application. Keep in mind that you are most likely going to need to make your decision about other colleges before you learn whether or not youve gotten off a waitlist. To be safe, you should move forward as if youve been rejected by schools that waitlisted you. Unfortunately, this means that should you get off a waitlist, you may need to forfeit your admissions deposit at another college. Can You Appeal a College Rejection? Whereas a deferral or waitlist places you in admissions limbo, a college rejection letter is typically an unambiguous conclusion to the application process. That said, at some schools in some situations, you can appeal a rejection decision. Be sure to find out whether or not the college allows appeals—some schools have explicit policies stating that an admissions decision is final and appeals are not welcome. There are, however, some situations that warrant an appeal. This can include a clerical error on part of the college or your high school, or a major piece of new information that strengthens your application. If you conclude that you are in a situation where an appeal makes sense, youll want to employ strategies to make your appeal effective. Part of the process, of course, will involve writing an appeal letter to the college that politely outlines the justification for your appeal. Be Realistic About Your Chances In all of the situations above, its important to keep your admissions chances in perspective. You should always have a plan in place should you not be admitted. If deferred, the good news is that you werent rejected. That said, your admissions chances are similar to the rest of the applicant pool, and highly selective schools send out far more rejection letters than acceptance letters.   If youve been waitlisted, you are more likely to stay on the waitlist than to be admitted. You should move forward as if youve been rejected: visit the schools that have accepted you and choose to attend the one that is the best match for your personality, interests, and professional goals. Finally, if youve been rejected, you have nothing to lose by appealing, but it is certainly a Hail Mary effort. Like a student who has been waitlisted, you should move forward as if the rejection is final. If you get good news, great, but dont plan on your appeal being successful.

The Long Hour - 1084 Words

The evening distinctly had ended on a marvellous night; however it had not been without its difficulties. More often than not, Eponine as well as Enjolras argued in whispers about her close proximity. The arguments usually consisted of a grinning Eponine, and a flustered Enjolras. Then, the political arguments between Marius and Enjolras voraciously came, which Eponine had zealously become immune to. It was amusing to behold the Fauchelevent’s bewildered expressions. Nevertheless, Enjolras had improved his people skills enough to survive the night without banging doors and spitting fire. Dare he think it; he would not mind another chance to coincidentally meet with the family. The stars twinkled above them as Enjolras mightily stood in the doorway, his body chilled from the night air. â€Å"Monsieur Enjolras, I enjoyed your company tonight.† Under his elbow were two books, Monsieur Valjean passed the two mighty volumes in Enjolras’ arms. â€Å"These are two books I have enjoyed in the past; I thought you might enjoy them.† Enjolras thanked him with warm gratitude, if there was a gift he would always cherish; it was the beauty of the written word. Modestly, Valjean shook Enjolras’ hand for the last time in the night and bid au revoir. Under the light, Cosette’s dress shone with a lavender glow. With a cherishing smile, she pressed a chaste kiss against his cheek. Surprisingly, he did not mind the innocent gesture. â€Å"Thank you for the dinner, Cosette.† He, subconsciously, glanced atShow MoreRelatedThe Long Hour525 Words   |  3 PagesI entered the room wincing with a feel of a deep pulsating sensation over my head. There is a feeling that my head is bouncing like a ball in a soccer field and a constant blink-blink sound is being transmitted internally into my ears. The tingling sensations in my legs and arms with flashes of light before the start of this sensation made me anxious. I looked around the room and saw few more people sharing their pain and feelings with their loved ones. Everyone seemed in problem and is frowningRead MoreThe Hour Long Drive Back1342 Words   |  6 PagesThe hour-long drive back to the city gave both men the time they needed to cool off. However, a moody silence still blanketed the atmosphere, making it all the more difficult for Booker to impart the news he knew would destroy Tom’s world. On edge, he waited until Tom was sitting down in their ap artment before broaching the subject. â€Å"There’s something I need to tell you.† Although not surprised by the statement, the flicker of foreboding churning Tom’s stomach rose to a nervous flutter in his chestRead MoreEthical Issue of Long Work Hours1741 Words   |  7 Pages Ethical Issue of Long Work Hours Xinyu Zhou Grad 6 Taught by Dr. Mark Smith Introduction Today, long work hours have become a significant issue. For employees’ health and the normal operation of the society system, ethical issue of long work hours should be cared more. Countless evidence shows that long work hours increase the workers’ risks for injury and disease. For instance, a research by American government estimates that long work hours increase the possibilitiesRead MoreNegative Outcomes Of Long Hours Online Essay1007 Words   |  5 PagesOutcomes of long hours online On November 14, NPR radio lab published an article about the negative outcomes of long hour online. There is a study from the journal Clinical Psychological Science, which finds that more than 3 hours spending with hi-tech pre-day might cause depression and suicide thoughts among teens. The team who published the study made a nation survey that ask half of million teen who are in age 13 to 18 questions about the meaning of lives. They found answers that are feelingRead MoreWorking Long Hours Is Part Of Being A Nurse Essay1454 Words   |  6 PagesOvertime: Mandatory or Choice Assess the Situation Working long hours is part of being a nurse. Each shift requires both mental and physical stamina. But what happens when you get to end of a long shift only to find out there is no one coming in to take your place? Unfortunately, that is sometimes the case. For example, a charge nurse in Massachusetts was faced with working 16 hours when a member of her nursing staff did not come in for their scheduled shift. She did not volunteer for overtimeRead MoreWorking Long Hours And Its Effect On Family Life1806 Words   |  8 PagesWorking long hours has become a tradition in modern society. Although it was postulated from the past that today’s society would have too much free time, this has turned out to be a sharp contradiction. In this paper, an examination of working long hours is examined with respect to how this habit became a norm, how it is propagated, and its effect on family life. Working long hours is a result of scarcity of resources in society. Long working hours is now a norm for society. This custom becameRead MoreWorking Long Hours And Its Effect On Family Life1812 Words   |  8 PagesWorking long hours have become a tradition in modern society. Although it was postulated from the past that today’s society would have too much free time, this has turned out to be a sharp contradiction. In this paper, an examination of working long hours are examined with respect to how this habit became a norm, how it is propagated, and its effect on family life. Working long hours is a result of scarcity of resources in society. Long working hours is now a norm for society. This custom becameRead MoreWorking Long Hours Is More Complicated Than What People Believe1630 Words   |  7 PagesWorking Long Hours Is More Complicated Than What People Believe In the article, â€Å"You Really Don’t Need To Work So Much†, author Tim Wu believes that part of the American character is to prefer work to leisure time; therefore he provides an enlightening solution through which white-collar workers can confront this damaging work system. According to Wu, the majority of American professionals like taking pride about the job they have, want to seem important in the eyes of society and worry about theRead MoreAfter A Long Seven-Hour Day, Have You Ever Noticed A Kindergartner1014 Words   |  5 PagesAfter a long seven-hour day, have you ever noticed a kindergartner who seems extremely exhausted? Their brains have been powered on all day and haven’t had the time to fully recharge. Are they sleep deprived, we wonder? Therefore, while researching many sources, a study was found which focused on four and five-year-old’s memory following a nap. According to Kurdziela, Duclosb, Spencer (2013), study results demonstrated that children had better memory recall following a nap than when they hadRead MoreThe A New Progressive Incidence Where So Many People Working Long Hours?1764 Words   |  8 Pagesprogressive incidence where so many people working long hours. Mostly, the definitive reason given is so that they can make ends meet in the modern society where the cost of living has to be supplemented by an extra sacrifice to devote more into work. The expectations seemed like guarantees: later on, working hours would be short and get-aways or vacations long. Our grandchildren, figured John Maynard Keynes in 1930, would work around three hours a day— and likely just by decision. Economic advancement

Black Boy Free Essays

Midterm Paper The Many Hungers in Black Boy We often find ourselves thinking â€Å"Man I am so hungry! † after going without eating for Just a few hours. If you really think about it we only go without eating for small periods of time. Have we ever really experienced hunger? Real hunger for that matter, hunger like Richard faces in Black Boy. We will write a custom essay sample on Black Boy or any similar topic only for you Order Now The kind of hunger he experiences are not evident in a society in which we live. Hunger for us is skipping a meal or not finding anything that will please our appetite. This is not even comparable to the days that Richard endures without eating any food. There is not only physical hunger present in the novel Black Boy, Richard suffers from educational and emotional hunger. Richard longs for conversation and love from others and books to read or some sort of education. Most people often take these for granted but it is the only thing that Richard desires. The hunger in the novel Black Boy by Richard Wright serves as a magnet that pulls us through the story of Richard’s emotional, physical, and intellectual hunger. Richard is faced at a very early age and for most of his life with experiences of hysical hunger, starvation. Hunger stole upon me slowly that at first I was not aware of what hunger really meant. Hunger had always been more or less at my elbow when I played, but now I began to wake up at night to find hunger standing at my bedside, staring at me gauntly† (16). Richard seemed to starve quite often but after his father left he seemed to have constant starvation. Starvation seems to happen a good deal throughout R ichard’s life. The type of hunger Richard describes seems to be very painful, a kind of pain that one can’t even imagine. Once again I new hunger, biting hunger, hunger that made my body aimlessly restless, hunger that kept me on edge, that made my temper flare, that made my temper flare, hunger that made hate leap out of my heart like the dart of a serpent’s tongue, hunger that created in me odd cravings† (119). Since hunger is always present in Richard’s lifestyle it seems as if he cannot imagine eating a simple meal every day. To us a simple meal may not seem like such a big deal, but to Richard, and many who suffered like Richard during this time, a simple meal is a miracle. The weakening and ainful piercing hungers are evidence that where the poverty happened in the Jim Crow South. Richard does not only suffer from physical hunger, he also suffers through emotional hunger throughout the text. He desires attention from people, attention from his family. Richard does not receive much attention at home so that impacts his relationship with others. He does not know how to associate with others. This causes a problem for Richard, when he finally leaves home he does not know how to associate with others. He cannot understand the friendly gestures of those around him. Nevertheless, I was so starved for association with people that I allowed myself to be seduced by it all, and for a few months I lived the life of an optimist† (178). Richard grew up in a very hostile nome environment which made him not only yearn for food but for love and affection. Another issue that helped contribute to Richard’s emotional hunger is the issue of blacks and whites. Richard does not seem to understand the relationship between the two groups of people. â€Å"l wanted to understand these two sets of people who lived side by side and never touched, it seemed, except in violence† (54). Richard viewed the treatment toward him and the others as wrong, but he dare not go against it. He seemed to have accepted the segregation, but he never let the white people go far in how they treated him. Richard wanted to be able to speak his mind, but he was always told to hush up and he did not want to be treated poorly by the whites. The idea of this was hard for Richard to overcome so he ended up moving to the North. The emotional hunger that Richard faces often led him to loneliness or grief. The biggest hunger the Richard had to suffer through would be his hunger for ducation. Richard longed for an education. He is a bright boy yet there is no encouragement for him to succeed and learn. There was no encouragement to learn because Negro children of the south did not grow up to be successful. Many of the blacks during that time seemed to settle, settle for ignorance and illiteracy. Richard however, decided to take advantage of the little opportunities that presented themselves. He longed for an education even more after meeting Ella, the school teacher. He stated â€Å"†¦ as much afraid of her as he was attracted to her† (38). The attraction allows him to overcome his fear and ask her about her books, which further awakens the hunger of knowledge. Richard tried to learn and read. â€Å"l hungered for the sharp, frightening, breathtaking, almost painful excitement that the story had given me, and I vowed that as soon as I was old enough I would buy all the novels there were and read them to feed that thirst for violence that was in me, for intrigue, for plotting, for secrecy, for bloody murders† (46). Richard loves to read and write. He is very curious and wants to learn as much as he can. He learns a lot through his experiences rather than a school setting. He gets very excited when he learns new things. â€Å"†¦ l had learned to count to a hundred and I was overjoyed†¦. I would read the newspapers with my mother guiding me and spelling out the words. I soon became a nuisance by asking far too many questions of everybody† (26). The quest for Richard’s learning never seemed to be conquered. Richard suffered through many hungers that we may never experience, we are privileged. His emotional, physical, and educational hunger seem to impact him ignificantly. Even with all odds stacked against him, Richard prevails and succeeds against all odds. As an adult living in the North, he conquered the obstacles and is stronger than most living around him. Richard survives through these hungers with his great endurance. â€Å"Whenever my environment had failed to support or nourish me, I had clutched at books†¦ † It seemed as if Richard would use his hungers against each other in turn making him a stronger person. Richard endures a lot in the text, much that people in our society today could not survive. How to cite Black Boy, Papers

Tyeps of Marketing

Question : Discuss about the Types of Marketing ? Answer: Introduction The assignment is about the appropriate benchmarks and milestones that would be used to maximise the opportunities of Qantas airways so that future success can be ensured. These are the alternative future futures that could occur in the organisation so that different environmental challenges can be met. Qantas airways are the largest airline company of Australia and also renamed as one world Airline alliance. The company pays attention on its benchmarking process so that it can meet challenges of external and internal environment. It focuses and adopts benchmarking standards like Total quality management and it needs to adopt some benchmarking standards for its future success.Qantas is the most popular airline of Australia and it is also the largest one if the fleet size is compared. The airline has 65% of share in the total airline market of Australia. Being the biggest airlines of Australia, it needs to adopt some benchmarking so that it could achieve its future objectives. Benchmarking Benchmarking is the process where the business and its performance have been compared to the performance of the industry. It is the ongoing process which improves the performance of the organisation. It also helps in identifying the gaps in the processing of organisation and helps in achieving the competitive advantage in the industry (Singh, 2016). Qantas being the leader is the aviation industry in Australia has to measure its performance continuously so that its performance can be improved and it can maintain its competitive position. It is already discussed above that Qantas Airways is planning to improve its operations by creating sustainable environment for its stakeholders, by developing technologies for the effective operations and by creating and developing a good service culture in the organisation. There are competitors benchmarking and also a strategic benchmarking. Competitive benchmarking helps the company to evaluate its position in the industry while strategic benchmarking is used in the case of evaluating and analysing the performance of the company (Min Min, 2015). Benchmarking is one of the strategies to facilitate Qantas airways for designing a successful model in the airline industry and it proved as a benchmark for many other airlines in Australia and the world. It not only helps in achieving the objectives of the business but also helps in minimising the costs and maximising the profits. One of the technique or practice to measure the performance of the Qantas airways is performance benchmarking (Mehta et al., 2015). To develop and implement any strategy, it is very important to measure the performance of the company. Performance benchmark is the process which recognizes the best practices which helps the company to improve its performance. Time frames are set and the standards are fixed according to which the company has to maintain its operations so that the standards can be met and the efficiency and performance of the company can be improved. There is a process of benchmarking which is an ongoing process and helps in achieving the goal s (Wang, et. al., 2014). Future benchmarking practices for Qantas Airways Qantas is a strong performer of the year 2015. It also strived and gave its maximum to make its balance sheet strong and to provide maximum returns to the shareholders. The employees of Qantas are hardworking and they are committed to bring best performance in the business for laying foundations for its growth. It continuously brings new and innovative services to meet the demands of the passengers and take part in certain programs which are designed for building the sustainable future for the business and societies. Sustainability is in the strategies of the company (Sarina Lansbury, 2013) . (Source: https://centreforaviation.com/analysis/qantas-heads-towards-a-full-year-aud1-billion-profit-and-now-needs-to-look-for-market-growth-211539) The above graph shows that the performance in 2015 increased to a great extent for Qantas in total.In the highly uncertain business environments, the businesses have to set its strategies to shape its future. Qantas can adopt a range of alternative futures for responding to the different environmental changes. There are considerable changes in the external environment of Qantas like the trends and changes in society, cultural diversity and demographic changes, changes in technology and environment. The following are the alternatives which leads it to success: Working with the customers, environment and communities Qantas is among the first few airlines which introduced the carbon offsetting program. It does not provide any profits to the company but the funds which are collected are used to purchase the carbon offsets. Qantas can run these types of programs in future so that the social and environmental goals can be met. For this Qantas is planning to expand its range of offset programs so that carbon can be offset. They are also expanding their business with the benefit of environment by collaborating with the tour operators of Australia who work on the sustainability (Abdullah, et. al., 2016). (Source: https://investor.qantas.com/FormBuilder/_Resource/_module/doLLG5ufYkCyEPjF1tpgyw/file/annual-report/qantas_annual_review_2015.pdf)The company also planning to work on the reduction of the wastage of electricity, water and waste. It plans a strong sustainable future for all the stakeholders of the company. The company also cares for its employees, to maintain their safety and security. The company is aiming to implement a long term strategy so that the significant Workforce involvement can be achieved (Maimbo and Melecky, 2016). The company also runs different programs which focus on preserving the employees from the injuries and many other risks. The company strives to maintain an environment which improves safety in the business and encourages trust and confidence in the employees of Qantas (KUZEMKO, 2015) The company has the highest priority of saving its customers and employees so that collaboration can be maintained between the company, employees and the customers. Technology Qantas has the main focus on technology in future growth plans. It developed a strong turnaround strategy which brought the company back into profits. The airline business is not easy in terms of costs and profits which is dependent on the prices of fuel in the international market. The company is planning to focus on technology and digital strategies in future to differentiate from the competitors (Qantas airways limited: Travel tourism - company profile, SWOT financial analysis, 2016).For the company, new technology is the priority and the company uses its customer relationship extremely well to create its new business. The company is investing in the areas which matters to its customers. The airline company developed its technology for the savings of time and to provide convenience to the customers. It also focussed on the digital transformation where it enhanced the experience of the customer through social media where the customer service is provided 365 days in a year. The co mpany is also planning to develop a mobile application and is planning to develop its own digital channels to enhance the customer experience (Oxenbridge, et. al., 2010). The company is also planning to strengthen its technology for protecting the business against cyber risks. In the next 10 years, the company is planning to operate with latest technology which takes it better than its competitors. For which, it has to consider various external environment of the company. The Qantas group is among the leading ones in the industry and it has made many investments in its services to make them better. The company has already made many improvements in the recent years and started providing many new services so that it can build up new customers and entertain the existing ones (Sarina Lansbury, 2013). The airline company has started investing in new projects to achieve more customers and markets. The company focuses on the customer satisfaction thorough its services and is a proud brand because it receives highest ratings from its customers. It aims at providing safety to its customers and minimise the risks. For this, the company is running many projects of research for providing the best services to the customers and maximum satisfaction to them. For this, it involves its people by supporting and empowering them so that the main objectives of the business can be met. The company runs training programs to unite their people and to empower them. These prog rams are committed to develop leadership skills in the employees and the company has a diverse workforce which shows the multicultural Australia. The company promote this diversity as its strength. The company focuses on maintaining the gender equality, indigenous employment and flexibility between the Woking hours (Sarina Lansbury, 2013). The company uses New Promoter Score (NPS) to benchmark its performance and the feedback from the customers goes directly to the employees. It helps the company in taking the strategic decisions and in improving the experience of the travellers. Benchmarking is the process which has to be followed with sufficient time and efforts. Companies nowadays follow benchmarking without devoting time and efforts which leads to poor results of benchmarking. Benchmarking is the tool for future and is the most commonly used tool for improvement in the organisations (Albertin et al., 2015). The techniques of benchmarking which can be used by Qantas for improvement in technology, services and cultures and for creating the sustainable environment for stakeholders are Corporate social responsibility system, customer surveys and knowledge management (Okhrimenko, 2016). Bringing sustainability to businessCorporate social responsibility systems Corporate social responsibility is the term which encourages the company to make a good impact on the society, customers, environment and other stakeholders. Qantas aims at developing a sustainable business for its customers and environment which shows that it has to undertake corporate social responsibility activities to fulfil the same. Benchmarking is done on the basis of corporate social responsibility and different points and aspects are considered in this like how many environmental initiatives are taken by Qantas to reduce harmful impacts on the environment (Carroll, 2015). Which all social activities it has understand to crate positive impact on the societies and communities like how it strives to provide benefits to its employees, what all health and safety policies are adopted by the company? It also follows the product responsibilities like how the product or services are being produced and how they are provided to the customers, ethics are been considered over here. It al so involves the analysis of political contributions of the company, anti-corruption activities and the other practices for the betterment of societies. After following this benchmarking process, it is seen that Qantas airways has won many awards for performing its sustainability like Eco- aviation award in 2013, Australian business award for sustainability in 2015, etc. the company has been identified as the sustainability leader in the country and in its industry (Kusunoki, 2016). It focuses on the environmental, social and governmental practices which help in improving the societies, environment and relations of the company with the government.Client surveys This is the tool through which the customer satisfaction of the company is measured. In future, Qantas airways are aiming at providing the customer services and culture to the customers and to the employees which benefits them the most. Customer surveys are the tools which help in collecting the information about the customers and helps in tracking the changes in the satisfaction levels of the customers and for identifying the customers who are at risk. Some of the companies conduct client satisfaction surveys to know the feedback of the customers so that the potential impact on the business can be known. It is very important to know what customers feel so that the business can provide the customers with the expectations they have from the company. Client satisfaction surveys are used by Qantas because they serves as a benchmark to perform and provide the services to them which fulfils their needs and demands. It helps the company to work in collaboration with its customers and helps in meeting the competition. The data of customer surveys are compiled to form a benchmark report. The results of the customer surveys are set as the benchmarks and the surveys are repeated to know whether it is moving in the right direction. Knowledge management It is the process through which the knowledge is created, stored, shared and used for managing the organisation and its operations. It involves using the knowledge for achieving the business objectives. It involves efficient handling of information and the available resources in the organisation (Shokri-Ghasabeh and Chileshe, 2014). It provides a baseline to the organisation. The assessment of knowledge management identifies the required elements which are missing in the organisation to create and develop an effective knowledge management framework. Qantas is aiming to develop and adopt latest and efficient technologies for effective operations and for better business performance. It requires a pool of knowledge to develop and implement such technologies (Borjigen, 2015). This knowledge is then used by the organisation to run effective programs andsystems. The knowledge is updated at regular intervals to match the industry requirements. The assessment of knowledge management will be directly compared to the competitors in the industry and then the comparison is made as to which organisation has better knowledge management. It helps in making the organisation aware about different tools and techniques which can be used to achieve the set objectives of the organisation. So, knowledge management is another benchmarking tool for meeting the challenges of the future of the business and achieving the set objectives. Milestones to achieve these benchmarks S. No. Particulars Milestone 1. Working with the customers, environment and communities July 2017 2. Technology December 2017 3. Service and culture April 2017 4. Corporate social responsibility systems December 2017 5. Knowledge management Jan 2018 6. Client surveys Completed and ongoing The action plan to achieve the benchmarks Benchmarking has a very strong future. It is a strong indicator for achieving the set goals. Benchmarking provides an opportunity to provide knowledge and innovation which are then used to achieve the objectives of the company. It main idea is to develop an understanding in the business as to how the business can improve in comparison to others. Benchmarking has the process which is divided into different stages (Singh, et. al., 2016). These stages are as following: Planning and analysis: First of all, to improve the operations and practices of the company for future, the company has to devote its time for planning of the whole benchmarking process. Here the management of Qantas has to identify the opportunities and then prioritizing the activities according to their importance. It is to be decided that what is to be benchmarked. Like in Qantas airways, the services and culture has to be benchmarked. Also, the technology has to be benchmarked. So, the processes of service delivery and technology will be considered. The most critical processes which require bench marketing will be identified (Walsh, 2011). In the phase of analysis, the information which has been collected will be analysed and then the process of improvement will be developed after that. The company will have to set a goal to achieve from the benchmarking process. The techniques of benchmarking will be decided and the cost benefit analysis will be done (Elskamp et al., 2015). Integration Integration maintains the relationship between the two stages of planning and analysis and the Act onstage. It recommends the action plan for the success of the project. The strengths and weaknesses will be analysed for the company and recommendations will be given related to processes, job responsibilities, staff involved and the use of technology (Min Min, 2015). Action plan This is the last phase of this process in which process is continued. Here the action plan will be developed for the implementation where all the targets and the time duration consumed in achieving those targets will be discussed. Here the responsibilities of the management regarding the process will be discussed and the process will be continued to achieve the milestones (Zurell et al., 2016). The activities have to be reviewed for reviewing their performance and to ensure the benefits of the process. Recommendations The recommendations are given at last, after reviewing the whole process. This involves recognising the gaps and filling them to achieve the set objectives. Conclusion The assignment report focuses on the benchmarking methods which are used to fulfil the objectives of the business which has been set for future of the business to respond to different environmental changes. The assignment consists of the explanation of benchmark and its techniques. The process of benchmarking has also been discussed to explain how the milestones will be covered step by step. This covers the range of alternative futures of the organisation so that the available opportunities can be maximised. References Abdullah, M., Chew, B., Hamid, S. (2016). Benchmarking key success factors for the future green airline industry.Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences,224, 246-253. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2016.05.456 Albertin, M. R., Pontes, H. L. J., Frota, E. R., Assuno, M. B. (2015). Flexible benchmarking: A new reference model. Benchmarking: An International Journal, 22(5), 920-944. doi:10.1108/BIJ-05-2013-0054 Borjigen, C. (2015). Mass collaborative knowledge management. Program: Electronic Library and Information Systems, 49(3), 325-342. doi:10.1108/PROG-02-2015-0023 Carroll, A. B. (2015). Corporate social responsibility. Organizational Dynamics, 44(2), 87-96. doi:10.1016/j.orgdyn.2015.02.002 Elskamp, F., Kruggel-Emden, H., Hennig, M., Teipel, U. (2015). 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Benchmarking the service quality of airlines in the United States: An exploratory analysis.Benchmarking: An International Journal,22(5), 734-751. doi:10.1108/BIJ-03-2013-0029 Okhrimenko, G. V. (2016). The implementation of benchmarking process in marketing education services by ukrainian universities. Marketing MenedÃ… ¾ment Innovacj, 7(1), 84-93. Oxenbridge, S., Wallace, J., White, L., Tiernan, S., Lansbury, R. (2010). A comparative analysis of restructuring employment relationships in Qantas and aer lingus: Different routes, similar destinations.The International Journal of Human Resource Management,21(2), 180-196. doi:10.1080/09585190903509472 Qantas airways limited : Travel tourism - company profile, SWOT financial analysis.(2016). (). Basingstoke: Progressive Digital Media. Sarina, T., Lansbury, R. D. (2013). 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Difference between Deliberate and Emergent Strategies

Deliberate strategy is structured and properly planned before the implementation process while emergent strategy is characterised by direct activities that are not meant to address any prior plan. Different scholars have engaged in debates to ascertain which of the two strategies is better.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Difference between Deliberate and Emergent Strategies specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Firms that are more stable and willing to dominate the market prefer deliberate strategy while those that are unstable and flexible prefer emergent version. Deliberate strategy emphasises on structural plan that is common to the institutions with hierarchal power distance systems, where all activities carried out by the organisation must be discussed and approved (Glavin, Haidar, Hill and Jones, 2007). Deliberate strategy is an outline of how objectives will be carried out so as to satisfy the overall objectiv e effectively. On the other hand, the emergent strategy is best in unstable environment when the planning process is seen as time consuming and a limit to profitability. The management allows free actions without formalities at different scenarios. Studies, however, postulate that a combination of the two strategies would be more effective. For instance, the organisation would cope better with the fluctuations in the case of emergent strategy. Consequently, the adoption of deliberate approach would ensure that the firm prepares adequately for the implementation plan. Even if emergent strategy emphasis is on the approach to cope with all scenarios, the deliberate strategy equally promotes preparedness of the firm for implementation process (Scheer, 2007). Philip Sim Associates is a stable firm that adopts both deliberate and emergent strategy. Due to economic situation in Australia, the firm has planned to increase its coverage rate by moving to Asia. This has been based on delibera te strategy as evidenced by the SWOT analysis that is well spelt in the plan strategy. The cultural plan that is meant to attract more Chinese clients is being implemented. Further, the lawyers in the firm are familiarising themselves with Chinese culture as a plan before they can go ahead to establish their firm in Asia. This will help the lawyers to properly understand and appreciate the culture of Chinese thereby increasing their competitive advantage. Studies show that deliberate strategy identifies challenges before actual implementation stage which reduces the chances of failure in realisation of the set goals. Further in case of failure, the organisation will be able to identify the cause as opposed to a situation where there was no plan at all (Jacob, Simms and Welch, 2009).Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Philip Sim Associates faces competition from the larger firm s and would have to adopt emergent strategy. This is because the strategy is less time consuming as the activities are directed to solve a problem or match the competition without following any form of plan. The corporate emphasises on employing more lawyers who are familiar with the Chinese culture with no formal plan or pre test. The strategy of employing more Chinese in the firm directly will be done in a short time and will bring more impact. On the other hand, if a pre test was first to be conducted before the employment strategy is initiated, more time and resources would be used (Barnwell and Robbins, 2006). Emergent strategy would help the firm to become more competitive especially to the new entrants. As a result of the combination of both deliberate and emergent strategies, the competitive strategy is more intensified as the dynamic culture variation approach will be very effective. This, therefore, means that both deliberate and emergent strategies are of paramount import ance in the functioning of Philip Sim Associates. References Barnwell, S Robbins, N 2006, Organisation Theory: Concepts and Cases, 5th edn, Pearson Education Australia, NSW. Glavin, P, Haidar, A, Hill, C, Jones, G 2007, Strategic Management: An Integrated Approach, 2nd edn, John Wiley Sons, Australia. Jacob, B, Simms, T, Welch, E 2009, ‘Emergent Management Strategies in a Public Agency: A Case Study of Alternative Fuel Vehicles’, Public Organiz Rev, vol. 9, pp. 213-234. Scheer, AK 2007, ‘Jazz Improvisation and Management’, Aris Platform Expert Paper, pp. 2-12Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Difference between Deliberate and Emergent Strategies specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This essay on Difference between Deliberate and Emergent Strategies was written and submitted by user Miah A. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Guilt and Shame Essay Example

Guilt and Shame Essay Example Guilt and Shame Essay Guilt and Shame Essay Essay Topic: African Religions and Philosophy Anna Karenina The society of traditional  Japan  was long held to be a good example of one in which shame is the primary agent of  social control. The first book to cogently[citation needed]  explain the workings of the Japanese society for the Western reader was  The Chrysanthemum and the Sword. This book was produced under less than ideal circumstances since it was written during the early years of  World War II  in an attempt to understand the people who had become such a powerful enemy of the West. Under the conditions of war it was, of course, impossible to do  field research  in Japan. Nevertheless, depending on the study of members of that culture who were  available for interview and study in the West, namely war prisoners at detention centers, as well as literary and other such records pertaining to cultural features,  Ruth Benedict  drew what some regard[who? ]  as a clear picture of the basic workings of Japanese society. Her study has been challenged and is not relied upon by anthropologists of Japan today. Contemporary  Western society  uses shame as one modality of control, but its primary dependence rests on  guilt, and, when that does not work, on the  criminal justice  system. : Paul Hiebert  characterizes the shame society as follows: Shame is a reaction to other peoples criticism, an acute personal chagrin at our failure to live up to our obligations and the expectations others have of us. In true shame oriented cultures, every person has a place and a duty in the society. One maintains self-respect, not by choosing what is good rather than what is evil, but by choosing what is expected of one. Personal desires are sunk in the collective expectation. Those who fail will often turn their aggression against themselves instead of using violence against others. By punishing themselves they maintain their self-respect before others, for shame cannot be relieved, as guilt can be, by  confession  and atonement. Shame is removed and honor restored only when a person does what the society expects of him or her in the situation, including committing suicide if necessary. (Hiebert 1985, 212) guilt society  is one in which the primary method of  social control  is the inculcation of feelings of  guilt  for behaviors that the society defines as undesirable. It involves an implicit judgment on the being (rather than just the behavior) of the individual: You are an  evil  person if you would do such-and-so. It also involves creating the  expectation  of punishment now (when the behavior fails to be kept secret) and/or in the hereafter. One of the interesting features of many such societies is that they inculcate feelings of guilt for feelings and/or impulses that the individual cannot help but feel. Where a  shame societymight tell its members that sexual interactions are to be hidden from general view or knowledge, a guilt society may tell people that they are guilty or sinful for mere  sexual desire. A prominent feature of guilt societies is the provision of sanctioned releases from guilt for certain behaviors either before the fact, as when one condemns sexuality but permits it conditionally in the context of marriage, or after the fact. There is a clear opportunity in such cases for authority figures to derive power, monetary and/or other advantages, etc. by manipulating the conditions of guilt and the forgiveness of guilt. Paul Hiebert characterizes the guilt society as follows: Guilt is a feeling that arises when we violate the absolute standards of  morality  within us, when we violate our conscience. A person may suffer from guilt although no one else knows of his or her misdeed; this feeling of guilt is relieved by confessing the misdeed and making restitution. True guilt cultures rely on an internalized conviction of sin as the enforcer of good behavior, not, as shame cultures do, on external sanctions. Guilt cultures emphasize punishment and forgiveness as ways of restoring the moral order; shame cultures stress self-denial and humility as ways of restoring the social order. (Hiebert 1985, 213) GUILT, SHAME,  and embarrassment are forms of social control. Whether these are cast in evolutionary, psychological, or cultural terms, we should not lose sight of that basic function. These emotions may not always be portrayed in these terms, but that is how they have evolved and become embedded in our cultural beliefs and practices. It is in this context that we should raise the question: Are there shame cultures as opposed to guilt cultures, with corresponding differences in how people within them experience guilt and shame? In American culture (and Western cultures enerally), personal identity is conceived of as being independent and autonomous. Society is seen as a collection of self-contained individuals who are held responsible for their own behavior. Ones interests are best served by allowing maximum freedom and responsibility in choosing ones objectives. Moral precepts are based on conceptions of justice. Even when these are tempered by interpersonal obligations, the focus remains on individuals who must balance their responsibilities between the self and significant others. THE PRIMARY  moral obligation is to avoid harming significant others. It is when you cause harm, or are unjust, that you feel guilty. Being responsive to the needs of others is desirable, but is not a moral duty. Individuals are free to follow their inclinations within the limits of the law and in consideration of the rights of others. Their obligations to others are defined in negative terms- what they should not do- rather than as positive duties of what they should do. Whereas the failure to uphold justice is a vice, the failure to be beneficent to others is only a lack of moral virtue. By contrast, in Asian contexts, ones identity is defined in relation to the group one belongs to, typically the family. Whereas in the West, a person would be known as Jane or John Doe, in the East, they would be identified as members of the Doe family. In her study of Indian Hindus, psychologist Joan Miller found that the primary basis of determining moral conduct was not justice but a persons duties to significant others. Among Americans, moral duty is imposed on the individual to constrain that individuals actions. For Hindus, doing ones duty meant both meeting ones obligations as well as realizing ones own nature. Therefore acting benevolently toward others was not an aim secondary to considerations of justice, nor was it a matter of acting above and beyond the call of duty- fulfilling ones social duty was the primary purpose of moral conduct. These differences lead to contrasting ways of determining what is moral. For instance, if there is no other way to help a friend in need, it would be ethical for an Indian to steal but unethical for an American to do so even if it means failing to help the friend. These differences are not absolute; nonetheless, twice as many Indians as Americans would give priority to interpersonal considerations over abstract ethical principles. Moreover, Indians were more prone than Americans to make contextual exceptions (where the morality of an action depends on the nature of the relationship and the circumstances of the case), whereas Americans took a more absolute view about an action being right or wrong, irrespective of other considerations. The moral objective in the West, as noted above, is to avoid doing wrong and is more objective; in the East, it is to do what is right and is more subjective. Similar considerations apply in other Asian cultures. In China, the family is the great self. One starts by literally owing ones life to ones parents. Ones primary obligation in life is to serve and protect social ties, not pursue personal goals. Similarly, while Americans place a high premium on self-reliance, the Japanese favor interdependence and harmonious integration within the group. Individuals in both groups are highly competitive, but in different ways. Americans want to  get ahead  of others; the Japanese are concerned with not falling behind; instead of pushing ahead, they line up sideways. The personal boundaries of Americans have been compared to the hard shell of an egg; those of the Japanese, to an eggs soft internal membrane. Erich Lessing/Art Resource This individualistic-versus-interdependent basis of moral judgment helps clarify the problematic distinctions between shame and guilt cultures. Instead of these designations explaining differences in such a way that makes one culture seem morally superior to another, they explain cultural differences as the outcome of serving different needs. In the Western context of individualism, guilt, with its emphasis on autonomy, provides a better moral foundation for guiding individuals who are responsible for themselves. With a lesser sense of responsibility for others, there is less need for shame as a form of social control. By contrast, in the Asian cultural context, where maintaining harmony in relationships is most valued, shame is a more effective means of moral control. Since personal boundaries extend beyond the individual, it becomes more difficult to generate guilt. When someone does wrong, it is not only the person but everyone related to that person who shares in the guilt. Therefore, shame in Asian cultures fulfills some of the same functions of social control that guilt does in the West and vice versa. These considerations are important to our understanding of differences in the ways guilt and shame are perceived in Western and Eastern religion. . . . For instance, the centrality of shame in Confucianism has led to the general impression that Confucian China is a shame society, and hence is ethically less developed. [Religion scholar] Mark Berkson [MA 92, PhD 00] has raised cogent arguments that this characterization is not valid. Confucian ethics, far from being ethically less well developed, offers much to others to learn from. While generally framed in East/West terms, these differences between guilt and shame can also be seen within Western culture itself in historical perspective. Homeric heroes in ancient Greece were driven by the twin virtues honor and fame. In their warlike society such virtues were best manifested on the battlefield. The self-esteem of heroes like Achilles, Odysseus, and Oedipus depended on their standing in the eyes of their peers, with whom they were in fierce competition and often conflict. Failure led to loss of face and shame. Consequently, shame has been generally assumed to be the predominant moral sentiment that motivated and restrained the ancient Greeks. Their shame culture was based on public esteem. What mattered was where one stood with respect to ones peers, who constituted an honor-group. This view has been challenged by moral philosopher Bernard Williams, who argues that Greek conceptions of shame also included elements of guilt. The moral objective in the West is to avoid doing wrong; in the East, to do what is right. These cultural differences are embedded in various languages as well. This makes translating terms like guilt and shame a common source of confusion. For example, when we look for synonyms for shame and guilt in Chinese, we do not find single terms that correspond to them. Rather, we find a number of terms that correspond to various types of shame, making distinctions that do not exist in English. In some contexts, even guilt may appear as a subsidiary form of shame. Even if the terms to designate them vary, are these emotions universal or culture specific? Do an American and an Indian experience guilt and shame the same way, whatever they call them? There are no simple answers to this question. Some emotions appear to be more universal than others; for instance, it is hard to imagine a culture that does not recognize expressions of fear or anger. However, when it comes to complex emotions like guilt and shame, which are more subject to cultural variation, the picture becomes less clear. Even the fact that a culture has no word for an emotion does not mean that the emotion it represents is absent. Linguists point out that even if certain emotions are universal, their terminology is not. For instance, there is no word for disgust in Polish. And in one Australian aboriginal language, fear and shame are expressed by the same word (associated with the impulse to retreat). The common error is to start with ones own language and look for exact translations in other languages. Ultimately, it is not through specific terms like guilt or shame but throughmetalanguage- descriptions of the essential elements in emotional states- that we can test the universality of the emotions. For instance, the answer to How do you feel when you have lost someone dear to you? would convey the idea of sadness better than would the answer to the question Do you feel sad? How does the evolutionary view help us in  dealing with guilt? This is not a matter explicitly addressed by evolutionary psychologists. . . . Nonetheless, the evolutionary basis of the capacity for altruism and the capacity to feel guilty provides us with a natural foundation for guilt, and hence the need for its acceptance and usefulness. If guilt is indeed part of our nature, and there are good reasons for it, it makes no sense to fight it or deny it. Accepting guilt as a fact of life therefore makes it easier to approach it in a positive manner, and perhaps helps us to resolve it in more authentic and adaptive ways. HERANT KATCHADOURIAN,  who came to Stanford in 1966, is an emeritus professor of psychiatry and human biology and former president of the Flora Family Foundation. He has received the Dinkelspiel and Lyman awards and has been selected seven times as Outstanding Professor and Class Day speaker. HONOR AND SHAME  IN A MIDDLE EASTERN SETTING| Roland Muller Copyright 2000 All rights reserved. Sociologists have recognized that three social issues have existed since earliest times. As civilizations formed, each of them grappled with the concept of fear, shame and guilt. These are, in essence the building blocks of society. Every society has its particular ways of dealing with these issues. And each of these issues have different importance, depending on the cultural makeup of that society. These three aspects make up the basic building blocks of worldview. It is similar to the three basic colors that an artist mixes to make all the colors of the universe. On my computer, I can mix the three primary colors to make up 64 million other colors. Thats the way it is with worldview. There are many different kinds of worldview, but when carefully examined they can be better understood when looking at them in the light of mans response to guilt, shame and fear. Sociologists have used terms like guilt-based cultures, and shame-based cultures for years now. We must be careful, however, not to try and fit each culture or worldview into one specific category such as fear based or shame based. As I stated, these building blocks are similar to an artist, creating thousands of colors from three basic primary colors. How much of each primary color is used, determines what the final color will be when the paint is mixed. In the same way, all three building blocks are present in all cultures and worldviews, but how much of each one is present, determines the actual type of culture that emerges. Having determined this, one must also consider how people in a particular local culture react to the elements of the overall culture. As an example, when an Arab is shamed, he may react by taking revenge on the one who causes the shame, but when an oriental is shamed, he may react by committing suicide. So while individual cultures may react to sin in different way, in general terms there are great blocks of the world that have similar worldviews. Where are the major blocks? Many western nations (Northern Europe, North America, Australia, and New Zealand) have cultures that contain mostly guilt-based cultural characteristics. On the other hand, much of the Middle East and Asia is made up shame-based cultures. Most of the primal religions and cultures of the world (such as tribes in the jungles of Africa, Asia, and South America) are structured around fear-based principles. The problem comes when we want to simply classify cultures into these three basic classifications. They do not easily fit, because they are made up of blends of all three. Thus, when analyzing a culture, one must look for the primary cultural characteristics, and then the secondary ones. As an example, many North American Native cultures are made up of elements of both shame-based and fear-based cultures. On the other hand, much of North American culture has been made up almost exclusively of guilt-based principles, although this has changed in the last two decades. As cultures and worldviews developed over the millennia, they have gravitated towards one of these groups. This polarization has created three mega-trends in worldview. While the majority of worldviews fits into these three classifications, many cultures draw equally from two or all three worldviews. This mixing of worldviews is especially noticeable in South America where jungle tribes with fear-based cultures come in contact with shame-based cultures originating out of southern Spain, and guilt-based cultures brought by western religion and western business. The goal of this paper is to simply introduce the idea of guilt, shame and fear based cultures, and then to examine how the Nabataean culture fit into this picture. Along the way I will use illustrations drawn from many cultures of the world, including modern Muslim culture. Guilt-Based Culture None of us lives in exactly the same culture. Culture varies from town to town, family to family and sometimes even from individual to individual. All of us are different. We are made up of different fabrics and formed by the different experiences that come into our lives on a day to day basis. Even those who try to define American or Canadian culture can only talk in vague generalizations. Americans come from all kinds of ethnic backgrounds, and have all kinds of values. Some live in middle class housing, some in cardboard boxes on the street, and some in large impressive mansions. Its hard to place categorizations and descriptions on people who are so diverse. Despite this, however, there are some general characteristics or mega-traits that fit the majority of people in the western world. Certain basic fundamental beliefs have molded western civilization. These beliefs have laid the foundations upon which these nations are built, and from which the fabric of their society has been formed. One of these basic foundations is their belief in right versus wrong. This understanding is so deeply ingrained in western culture, that westerners analyze almost everything from this perspective. Most western forms of entertainment are built upon the good guys and the bad guys. It is so familiar to westerners that few of them question its validity. It is such an integral part of religion and society, that they often cannot imagine a world where right versus wrong isnt the accepted basic underlying principle. Right versus wrong is the yardstick used in their culture to measure everything else with. They talk about the rightness and wrongness of someone elses actions. They talk about things being right for me. They are obsessed with knowing their rights and exercising them. Many western societies spend countless hours and billions of dollars debating the wrongs of society. Is homosexuality right or wrong? Is spending billions on the military right or wrong? Is possession of drugs right or wrong? How about possession of nuclear bombs, or weapons of mass destruction? Almost every major issue the west struggles with involves an aspect of deciding whether something is right or wrong. They arrive at this basic tension in life because almost everything in western culture is plotted on a guilt/innocence line. (Innocence being something defined as being right or righteousness). Guilt - Innocence The pulls and demands of these two diametrically opposed forces dictate much of western human behavior. Guilt can plague and haunt people bringing fear and condemnation upon them. Many westerners do everything they can to avoid being guilty. Psychologists spend a great deal of their time helping people deal with all sorts of guilt complexes. Evangelical Christians in particular, often live in circles that are governed by guilt principles based on the authority of the Bible. Outside of these circles, guilt is defined in many other ways. It can be a sense of public disapproval, being in trouble with the authorities, or not being politically correct. However guilt is defined, and to what extent it influences a culture varies widely from location to location. However, the understanding of right and wrong has been instrumental in forming much of western society. On the other end of the spectrum, is righteousness, or innocence. This is the unspoken goal of much of western society. Im OK, youre OK is the most comfortable situation for many. Many westerners express their innocence with the statement that they are as good as the next person. If this is true, then they can get about their business of pursuing happiness and pleasure within the bounds of being OK and not guilty. Most westerners do what they can to avoid being guilty and at the same time exercise their rights. This guilt/innocence thinking is so ingrained in western society that most westerners have immediate reflexes to events that catch them off guard. Being a westerner, I have often noticed some of the reflexes that we have developed. Have you ever noticed what happens in the swimming pool when the lifeguard blows his whistle? Almost all westerners will stop to see who is guilty, and when they realize they are innocent will resume swimming. This is a normal scenario from the western world, but it is not true in much of the eastern world. When we in the western world do something wrong, like unintentionally running a red light, we may feel guilty. This is also not necessarily true in the eastern world. Or, how about this scenario? Imagine a classroom full of grade school kids. Suddenly, the intercom interrupts their class. Johnny is being called to the principles office. What is the immediate reaction of the other children? In the west the immediate reaction would almost always be: What did you do wrong? Even western children almost always immediately assume guilt. Perhaps the school principal was going to hand out rewards, but much of western society conditions people to expect the worst, and they feel pangs of guilt. So much of western thinking is wrapped up in guilt. Wars are justified on the basis of establishing guilt. During the opening days of the Gulf War, the American government spent many hours and millions of dollars determining if Saddam Hussein was guilty. Once they thought they had established that he was guilty of committing atrocities they had the right to take military action against him. Throughout the war, they continued to make statements about Mr. Husseins deranged mental state and irrational actions. All of this helped justify the war. In fact, all during the history of western civilizations, wars have had to be justified, and each side identifies the other as being the bad guys. But some things are not easy to chart between right and wrong. Is a hungry child stealing food guilty? Should he be punished despite his hunger? These questions disturb us, because we feel that everything in life must fit somewhere between guilt and innocence. In fact, western association with guilt has gone so far as to provide an avenue for people to develop guilt complexes. They feel guilt for what they have done and also guilt for what they have not done. They even feel guilt for what others have done. People who struggle with a guilt complex can even be overcome with embarrassment and feelings of guilt from the actions of others. The flip side of guilt is innocence, righteousness, and exercising rights. As I mentioned, Im OK, youre OK is an important philosophy in western culture. In order not to point a finger at people, western society continues to expand the limits of what is acceptable activity. By making homosexuality acceptable, they help thousands of people avoid feeling guilty. This alone is enough to convince many people in western society that its OK for people to be homosexual. In fact, almost anything is tolerated as long as it doesnt hurt another person. I have been surprised to discover that many people in our western world believe that our fixation with right and wrong is not only normal, but also the only correct way to think. They assume that anyone, who does not think in these terms, does not think rationally or logically. In order to understand guilt-based culture, we must go back to Greek and Roman times, and examine the origin of this pattern of thinking, and discover how this has had an impact on society and religion. The Roman Connection The Roman Empire has come and gone, leaving us with a few ruined cities, and a wealth of stories about conquest and heroism. While most of what the Romans accomplished has disappeared, there is one facet of Roman life that has impacted the west, right down to the present. It is the Roman law, or the pax romana (Roman peace) which was brought about by everyone obeying the Roman law. Roman law introduced the concept that the law was above everyone, even the lawmakers. This idea was not totally new. The Jews under Moses understood this. Greek politicians developed a similar plan with their city-state, but with laws that were man made, not divine. The Romans, however, perfected the system, and put it into widespread use. They developed a type of democracy known as the republic. They put in place a complex legal system that required lawmakers, lawyers, and judges. This Roman system of law left a tremendous impact on western society. Even to this day, much of the western legal system is still built around the basic Roman code of law. Western civilization today is littered with references to the Roman Empire. Much of their coins, architecture, and language have Roman roots. Legal and economic theories are so filled with Romanisms that westerners no longer see them for what they are. They have become so much a part of their mental furniture, that few people today question them. As an example, Roman law during the Roman Empire assumed that the individuals rights were granted by the state (by government) and that lawmakers can make up laws. Under Roman law, the state was supreme, and rights were granted or erased whenever lawmakers decided. This philosophy is sometimes called statism. Its basic premise is that there is no law higher than the governments law. Roman politicians were not the first to invent statism but hey did such an effective job of applying it, that the Roman Empire has become the guiding star for politicians in the west. Statists see the pax romana, the period in which Rome dominated the Mediterranean world, as the golden days of statism. The known world was unified and controlled by one large government. This unification was symbolized in Roman times by something known as the  fasces. This was a bundle of wooden rods bound together by red-colo red bands. In ancient Rome the fasces was fixed to a wooden pole, with an ax at the top or side. This symbolized the unification of the people under a single government. The ax suggested what would happen to anyone who didnt obey the government. The Roman fasces became the origin of the word fascism. During Roman times, pax romana (the Roman peace) meant, do as you are told, dont make waves, or you will be hauled away in chains. Roman Law was supreme. In contrast to this, there was the old way of obeying the supreme ruler. Under this system, the word of the ruler was law. With the Republic, the Romans elevated law, so that it was above the ruler. Now everyone, even the emperor of Rome had to obey the law. The law, not the ruler determined if people were innocent or guilty. It is interesting to note, that as the early Christian church developed and grew, Roman law also had an impact on Christian theology. Since Roman law interpreted everything in the terms of right versus wrong, early Christians were deeply influenced by this thinking. Early Church Theologians Tertullian,  the early church father who first developed a code of systematic theology, was a lawyer steeped in Roman law. Using his understanding of law, and the need for justice, guilt, and redemption, he laid the basis for Christian systematic theology, as it would develop in the west. Tertullian was born shortly before 160 AD, into the home of a Roman centurion on duty in Carthage. He was trained in both Greek and Latin, and was very much at home in the classics. He became a proficient Roman lawyer and taught public speaking and practiced law in Rome, where he was converted to Christianity. In the years that followed he became the outstanding apologist of the Western church and the first known author of Christian systematic theology. Basil the Great  was born in 329 AD, and after completing his education in Athens he went on to practice law and teach rhetoric. In 370 AD, Basil, the awyer, became Basil the Bishop when he was elected bishop of Caesarea. During his time as Bishop he wrote many books in defense of the deity of Christ and of the Holy Spirit. Basils training in law and rhetoric gave him the tools he needed to speak out in defense of the church. Next came  Augustine  who was born in 354 AD into the home of a Roman official in the North African town of Tagaste. He received his early education in the local school, where he learned Latin to the accompaniment of many beatings. He hated studying the Greek language so much that he never learned to use it proficiently. He was sent to school in nearby Madaura and from there went to Carthage to study rhetoric, a technique used in Roman law for debate. He then taught legal rhetoric in his hometown and Carthage until he went to Milan in 384 AD. He was converted in 386 and became a priest in 391. He returned to Africa and became a prolific writer and bishop. No other Christian after Paul has had such a wide and deep impact on the Christian world through his writings as Augustine. Ambrose  was born around 340 AD, in Gaul. When his father, the prefect of Gaul, died, the family moved to Rome where Ambrose was educated for the legal profession. Later, he was appointed civil governor over a large territory, being headquartered in Milan. Upon the death of the bishop of Milan in 374, the people unanimously wanted him to take that position. Believing this to be the call of God, he gave up his high political position, distributed his money to the poor, and became a bishop. In 374, Ambrose demonstrated his ability in the fields of church administration, preaching, and theology. But as always, his training in Roman law enforced his views of guilt and righteousness. Have you noticed the impact that law and lawyers had on the development of the early church? This trend did not stop with the early church. Reformation Theologians John Calvin  was born in 1505 in northeastern France where his father was a respected citizen. He studied Humanistic Studies at the University of Paris, and then law at the University of Orleans, and finally at the University of Bourges. Sometime between 1532 and 1533 he converted and adopted the ideas of the reformation. The writings of John Calvin, the lawyer and theologian, have had a tremendous impact on our society. Calvin was not alone. Arnauld Antoine the French  theologian (1612-1694), studied at Calvi and Lisieux, first law, then theology. He was made a priest and doctor in 1634. Arnauld spoke out against the Jesuits and his writings added to the impact of the reformation. There are more examples of theologians who were also lawyers, such as  Martin Luther, but this list will suffice to point out that legal thought and expression had much to do with the development of the theology of the Early Church and the Reformation. Each of these church leaders continued to develop the relationship between Christianity, as it was known in the west, and the legal understanding of guilt, justice, and righteousness. These lawyers were concerned with establishing guilt, or innocence, and they brought this emphasis with them, into their theology. And so the western church that developed used this theology to build their civilizations. In the ensuing years, new nations in the New World would be founded on the theological basis developed by these church leaders. The United States of America was founded on these principles. The American founders attempted to establish a nation built on the Roman principle of a republic, and on the early churchs understanding of right and wrong. Today, it is interesting to notice that there are many non-western sources who link guilt-based culture with Christianity. In October 1999, Isaiah Kalinowski, the Opinion Editor for the Jordan Times, wrote an article entitled The Shame Culture that is Wabash. In this article he pointed out: guilt culture is due largely to Christianity. A shame culture is one in which individuals are kept from transgressing the social order by fear of public disgrace. On the other hand, in a guilt culture, ones own moral attitudes and fear of retribution in the distant future are what enforce the ethical behavior of a member of that society. From Kalinowskis perspective, guilt-based culture is linked to Christian theology. This is an unfortunate misrepresentation, as the Bible was written in a shame-based setting and speaks to all cultures and worldviews. On the other hand, Christians, must recognize the incredible impact that guilt-based culture has had on their history and understanding and interp retation of the Bible. The Eastern Scene Christianity in the east, however, developed differently. Eastern theologians did not use Roman law as a vehicle for interpreting the gospel. Rather, the eastern world was caught up in the shame-honor relationship that was prevalent in societies scattered from the Middle East to the Far East. Eastern Orthodox theology didnt deal directly with sin, guilt, and redemption. Chrysostom,  the early church theologian for the Eastern Church, was born about 345 AD into a wealthy aristocratic family in Antioch. He was a student of the sophist Libanius who had been a friend of the Emperor Julian. This man gave him a good training in the Greek classics and rhetoric that laid the foundation for his excellent speaking ability. After his baptism in 368, he became a monk in the eastern churches. Chrysostom rose to being an outstanding preacher, even winning the acclaim of the emperor. Today we have a record of around 680 of Chrystostoms sermons and homilies and I am told that he never once preached on justification. In the end, he was banished because he spoke out so sharply against the views of the western theologians. In the same way,  Islam,  which rose to prominence around 600 AD, teaches that God remains over all, and that law is in his hands, not the hands of lawmakers. The Quran enforces the principle that God is overall with the story about Pharaoh and how he was shown Allahs mightiest miracle, but he denied it and rebelled.   The Pharaoh quickly went away and summoning all his men, made to them a proclamation. I am your supreme Lord.   The Quran then tells us that Allah Smote him, and goes on to warn, Surely in this there is a lesson for the God fearing. Therefore it would be unthinkable to a Muslim, that a lawmaker could make a law that is over all. This is why Islam presents both a religious and a cultural pattern for people to live by. God dictates both moral laws and civil laws. Western Historians Roman law and thinking has also impacted the way we westerner look at history. The danger comes, when we westerners take our Roman understanding of civilization and culture and apply it to those who do not have a Roman-based culture. We fruitlessly spend untold hours and incalculable amounts of energy explaining to what motivates people and shapes society, when in truth, we dont understand the real principles of the other culture. The answer to this dilemma is quite simple. We westerners must put our Roman, guilt-based understanding of culture and history aside, and strive to understand other worldviews and their thinking. Then we need to return to our history books and discover what is happening in a society that is not pre-occupied with right and wrong, or guilt and innocence. Fear-Based Cultures As we drew near to the jungle village, the sound of drums could be heard. Drawing closer, we could see people dancing and withering on the ground. A man approached us and explained that they could not go further. The village was doing a sacred rite to improve the economy and bring more trade to the area. We were escorted away and not given a chance to introduce why we had come to their village. Later we heard that a human sacrifice had been offered to the spirits that day. In another situation we arrived in a village when a rain-making ceremony was about to begin. They were invited to watch. A black bull was led to the edge of the village where it faced the direction from where the rain would come. The animals throat was cut and it fell over on its left side, to the delight of all. This indicated that the sacrifice was acceptable. The men then cut up the meat and cooked it. As the meat was cooking, an old man began to shout out a prayer to the spirits for rain. Soon everyone joined in. After the meat was eaten, the shouting turned into dancing. The villagers danced all afternoon until the rain came. It rained so heavily that everyone had to run for shelter. Did the rituals bring the rain? To the natives it was obvious and there was no way that we rational westerners convince them otherwise. As these two stories illustrate, there are many people in the world today whose lives revolve around their interaction with the spiritual world. They believe that gods and spirits exist in the universe and they must live in peace with these unseen powers, either by living quietly, or by appeasing these powers. Based on their worldview, these cultures and peoples view the universe as a place filled with gods, demons, spirits, ghosts, and ancestors. Man needs to live at peace with the powers around him, and often man lives in fear. This fear is based on a number of different things. First, man fears man. Tribal wars are endemic, with captives becoming slaves or, sometimes, a meal for cannibals. Whenever tribes encounter people from outside of their own group, they approached them with suspicion and fear. Secondly, these people fear the supernatural. All around them events are taking place that can only be explained by the supernatural. Much like the ancient civilizations, they have developed spiritual explanations for how things work in this world. If crops fail, then specific gods or demons are responsible. If sickness comes, then other gods or demons are responsible. If a tribe fails in battle, it is because of the activity of a god or demon. Sickness is often viewed as a god reaping revenge. Everything in life, even romance, is somehow attributed to the activities of gods or demons. The struggle that these people face is simply one of needing power. Using their voodoo, charms, and other methods, they seek to gain control over other people and over the controlling powers of the universe. The paradigm that these people live in is one of fear versus power. At the end of the 19th century, E. B. Tylor attempted to understand the difference in thinking between Europeans and other peoples living in Africa and South America. In his writings he coined the word animism from the Latin word  anima  for soul. He saw the animistic worldview as interpreting everything from a spiritual philosophy rather than a materialistic philosophy. Many sociologists of Tylors era saw mankind moving from an ancient worldview based on the supernatural to a modern worldview based on science and reality. Dave Burnett states in his book  Unearthly Powers,  that H. W. Turner later advocated the use of the term primal religion, meaning that these religions both anteceded the great historic religions and continue to reveal many of the basic or primary features of religion. Almost everywhere you find animists or primal religions you find people living under the influence of a fear-based culture. Burnett goes on to state, Power can be understood in many ways: physical, political, economic, social, and religious. The secular worldview tends to regard all power as originating from within the material world. In contrast, primal worldviews see such powers not only as being real within the empirical world but as having their primary origin outside the visible world. In this way, those whose lives operate in the fear/power paradigm see themselves living in a physical world that co-exists and is influenced by unseen powers. These powers may be present in people or animals or even in inanimate objects like trees or hills. In some cultures, powers may be perceived in personal terms such as we would use for living beings. These powers are often regarded as having their own particular character, feeling, and ability to relate to others, and often, even have a will of their own. Like people, they may be angered, placated, or turned to in time of need. Power is an important concept in fear-based cultures. In the Pacific Islands it is often called mana, while the Iroquois of North America call it orenda, which particularly refers to the mystic power derived from a chant. The Eskimos have the notion of sila, a force watching and controlling everything. The Chinese have the concept of fung shui, or the powers within the earth and sea. In folk Islam the term baraka  (blessing or holiness) sometimes embraces many of these concepts. In most fear/power cultures, the main way of dealing with a power is to establish rules to protect the unwary from harm and procedures to appease those powers that are offended. These rules and procedures are generally referred to as taboo. Taboos come in the form of things like special people, forbidden or unclean foods, sacred objects, special acts or rituals, and special names. Appeasements are usually made in the form of sacrifice or dedication to the invisible powers. These powers can take various forms, such as: ghosts, demons, ancestors who live around people, spirits in trees and rocks, and totems (clans associated with certain animals or inanimate objects. ) In order to deal with these powers, rituals are established which people believe will affect the powers around them. Rituals are performed on certain calendar dates, and at certain times in someones life (rites of passage), or in a time of crisis. In order to appease the powers of the universe, systems of appeasement are worked out. They vary from place to place. Some civilizations offer incense while some offer their children as sacrifices to gods. However it is done, a system of appeasement, based on fear is the norm for their worldview. Wherever this system of appeasement comes into being, religious persons come to the forefront to control these systems. In some cases they are known as priests. In other cases they are known as witch doctors, or shamans. Whatever their title, their role is the same. They are the ones who hold power. Often they are the only ones who understand the needs of the gods or demons, and they are the ones through whom the demons or gods communicate. In every fear-based culture, the pattern is much the same. The witch doctor, priest, or shaman controls people through the use of fear. They are very effective in their roles, and as a result, whole cultures and people groups are held in their iron grip. Early Religion As archeologists and historians have dug through the sands of time, they have uncovered temples and signs of religious activity that reflect strong fear-based elements in early civilizations. Along with this, the structure of civilizations where rulers held absolute power reflects a fear-power base for their civilization. Kings, pharaohs, and rulers held supreme authority and wielded power through the fear that they instilled in the members of their civilization. This allowed civilizations like the Egyptians, Babylonians, Assyrians and others to conquer wide areas of their world. While we can deduce the fear-power aspect in these civilizations from ancient buildings and military records, it is much harder to detect the importance of shame and honor. Shame-Based Cultures Our taxi screeched to a halt. Lying in the middle of the street was a teen-age girl, dying. She had been shot in the head four times. Just then her brother walked across the street with two policemen and stated, There she is. I killed her because she was in an immoral situation with a man. Under the laws of the country, the young man was innocent. He had not committed murder but had preserved the honor of his family. In another case, a girl ran away from home. Later her family learned she had married someone from another religion. They were furious. The police imprisoned the girl so that she would be protected from her family. Elderly grandmothers taunted the brother and father. How long do we need to keep our heads to the ground in shame? Wont you do something to cleanse the shame from our tribe so we can raise our heads and live in honor once again? The family finally agreed to pay the police a $50,000. 00 guarantee that they would not hurt her and she was released into their custody. Within hours her father and brother shot her thirteen times. The entire family was pleased that honor had been restored. The guilt/innocence perspective in which westerners live dictates much of our thinking in the west. However, not everyone in the world operates within this paradigm. As I mentioned earlier, while living in the Middle East I noticed that when the lifeguard at a swimming pool blew his whistle, the westerners all stopped to see who was guilty, but the Arabs kept right on swimming. As I observed this and other phenomena, I began to realize that Arabs and Arab society were operating in another whole dimension. Guilt did not have the same power and influence as it did in the west. While they were aware of guilt, it didnt have the same strong connotations for them as it had for me. If a policeman pulled me over, I immediately felt guilty, thinking that perhaps I had done something wrong. But when my Arab friends were pulled over, they didnt display any sign of guilt. They talked boldly to the policeman, and even argued loudly with him over the issues at hand. It was only after many years of living in a Muslim culture that it started to dawn on me that the Arabs around me were not operating on a level of guilt versus innocence. Nor were they operating in a fear versus power paradigm. I had heard much about this from missionaries living in Africa but it didnt seem to apply to the Arabs of the Levant. Rather, I discovered that Arabs were living in a worldview where the predominant paradigm was shame versus honor. Once I clued in to this, I began to explore this concept and tried to verify it on all social levels. I was amazed to discover what I found. When I would visit my friends, I would try to act correctly and they would try to act honorably, not shamefully. I was busy trying to learn the rights and wrongs of their culture, but somehow my framework of right versus wrong didnt fit what was actually happening. The secret wasnt to act rightly or wrongly in their culture. It wasnt that there was a right way and a wrong way of doing things. The underlying principle was that there was an honorable and dishonorable way of doing things. Every part of the Muslim culture I lived in was based on honor and shame. When I visited my friends I could honor them in the way I acted. They could honor me, in the way they acted. Three cups of coffee bestowed honor on me. The first, called salam (peace) was followed by sadaqa (friendship), and the third cup of coffee was called issayf (the sword). The meaning was clear in their culture. When I arrived I was offered a cup of coffee that represented peace between us. As we drank and talked, the cup of friendship was offered. The last cup, the sword, illustrated their willingness to protect me and stand by me. It didnt matter if I was right or wrong, they were bound by their honor to protect me. Everywhere I moved in the Middle Eastern culture there were things that pointed to honor or shame. What chair I chose to sit in, who entered the door first, the way I expressed myself in Arabic, the very way I walked and held myself, all communicated to others around me my place in the world. The cultures of the Middle East are filled with thousands of tiny nuances that communicate messages about shame and honor. Shame is a popular topic today in western society. Shame, however is closely identified with a lack of self-esteem. Shame often stems from some form of abuse where children fail to learn trust. This is quite different from the shame societies of the east where shame and fear of shame are used as controlling forces in peoples lives. (As compared with right and wrong being used as a controlling factor. As western parents, we teach our children to act rightly. If they dont, we teach them that feelings of guilt are the proper response. In a shame-based culture however, children are taught to act honorably, and if they dont, feelings of shame are the proper response. But it goes farther than just feelings. Shame and honor are positions in society, just as being right (and justified) is a position in our western culture. In the west, young people are free to act as spo ntaneously as they want, as long as they are within the framework of right and wrong. They can be loud, boisterous, and happy, as long as they dont break things, or abuse others. Our rule in the west is As long as I dont hurt someone else or their property, Im generally ok. Young people in a Muslim setting are different. Wherever they go, they represent their families and tribes. Young people are not free to act as they want. They must always act honorably, so that the honor of their family and tribe is upheld. If they act shamefully, then the family or tribe will react against them. Shameful deeds are covered up. If they cant be covered up, they are revenged. It is the unwritten rule of the desert. The whole concept of shameful deeds can be traced back to the early Bedouin code of practice, which existed even before Islam arrived. This code, still much in existence today, affects not only the way individuals act, but also the actions of entire nations. As I have visited with people from other eastern countries, I have continued to explore the concept of honor and shame among these other countries. It has helped me understand and communicate with people from places such as Pakistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, China, Japan, and Korea. In fact, I have discovered that the concept of shame and honor makes a great discussion topic. I have often asked people from shame-based cultures what are honorable or shameful acts or actions in their cultures. The discussion that follows is often highly stimulating, and usually reflects or contrasts similar attitudes right across the shame- based countries of the world. In some cases however, there are distinct differences between cultures. As I mentioned earlier, if someone is badly shamed in an Arab culture and the shame cannot be hidden, then it is revenged, and the person responsible for the shaming is killed. In many eastern cultures, if a shame cannot be hidden, the way out is suicide. Even here, however, there are many similarities, as I have known of a number of students in Jordan committing suicide because of their poor school marks, just as happens in Japan. In order for shame-based cultures to work, shame and honor are usually attached to something greater than the individual. Honor is almost always placed on a group. This can be the immediate family, the extended tribe, or in some cases, as large as an entire nation; as was demonstrated in Japan just previous to World War Two. In most Middle Eastern cultures, honor is wrapped up with ones tribe. Everyone grows up within a tribal concept. If someone is from the Beni Hassan tribe, he thinks and acts, and dresses as a Beni Hassan. His actions reflect on the honor the Beni Hassan tribe. If he acts honorably, the Beni Hassan tribe is honored. If he acts shamefully, the whole tribe is shamed. If the act is vile enough, the Beni Hassan tribe will react, and execute the offender, even though he is a member of their own tribe, and perhaps even their immediate family. Thus the honor of the tribe is restored. Many years ago an Arab soldiers gun accidentally discharged and killed his friend and companion in the army. After serving seven years, he was released on condition that he leave Jordan. He lived for nearly twenty years in the United States, but decided to return one day to see his family. When it was learned that he had returned, several young people, some of whom had not been born at the time of the killing, surrounded the house where he was and riddled his body with bullets. Their honor was restored, and shame removed. If someone shames another tribe, tribal warfare could result, and often only the skilful intervention of a third party ends the strife. Arab lore is full of stories of how wise and skillful men have intervened in difficult situations. In fact, many national rulers gain their fame and reputation from their skills at ending tribal strife. In the Middle East two methods are recognized. First, a skillful ruler, through diplomatic efforts and displays of great wisdom, can end disputes. Solomons dealings with the two mothers who claimed the same baby displayed the kind of wisdom that Arabs appreciate and desire in their rulers. The second kind of ruler crushes all of the tribes and by force makes them submit to himself. Peace may then rule, but once the controlling power is removed, old animosities return. This is well illustrated in the Balkans conflict where the domination of communism brought about a measure of peace. Once freedom returned however, old conflicts and animosities flared again. The storytellers who frequent the coffeehouses of the Middle East excel in telling stories of both kinds of rulers and heroes, especially heroes who can effectively deal with shame and restore honor. This is very different from the entertainment styles of the west, where the hero determines who is guilty, and punishes him, and right and goodness reign again. This is because in our worldview, we try to hang onto the concept that in the midst of a crooked and perverse world, right still reigns and has the upper hand. Those from a shame-based culture, on the other hand, cling to the idea of maintaining honor, in the midst of a shameful and alienated world. For many western people it is very hard if not impossible to try and comprehend a culture that is based on shame, not right versus wrong. In most western cultures, telling the truth is right and telling lies is wrong. In the Middle East, people dont think of lies as being right or wrong. The question is, Is what is being said, honorable? If a lie protects the honor of a tribe or nation, then it is fine. If a lie is told for purely selfish reasons, then it is shameful. Thus, in the west we debate ethics, by trying to determine if things are right or wrong. In the east, they debate ethics, by trying to determine if things are honorable or not. Shame in Western Culture In the past, shame has played a role in western culture. One has only to read Tolstoys  Anna Karenina, or any of Shakespeares works to see the role that shame used to play. Shakespeare uses the word shame nine times as often as he does guilt. In time, however, our culture has changed and guilt has become much more important. Then, during the last twenty years, we have begun to move away from such a strong guilt-bases for our culture. Why is this? I suspect that the popularity of Freuds teachings is one reason. Sociologists generally credit Freudian psychology for the removal of guilt from western culture. Since his teachings have become popular in many universities, the concept of guilt has become unpopular and guilt has been assigned to others, such as our parents. Other factors, like the lack of responsibility within modern politics have influence young people today. Nixon and Watergate, and Clinton and Lewinsky have illustrated to people today that right versus wrong is not the only way to think. During the period of 1960 to 2000 western civilization has begun a slow but steady shift away from the right versus wrong paradigm. Today young people are very reluctant to label anything as right or wrong. Instead, things are assigned the label as cool or not cool. In the eyes of many high school students, being cool is equivalent to being honorable. Being not cool is the equivalent of shame. I believe that this slow shift in worldview is responsible for many of the differences between boosters, boomers, busters, and Generation Xrs. Shaming in History Early Roman culture started out in the fear/power paradigm. Events of nature and history were interpreted within this paradigm. The worship of a pantheon of gods carried on during their whole civilization until Christianity became the state religion. When the Romans adopted the Greek pattern of placing the law above the emperor, they began to interpret events in their society on the guilt/innocence paradigm. This soon came to the forefront of their civilization, and fear/power was pushed to the back. When the Romans conquered shame-based civilizations the people they conquered had a profound impact on their own culture. Shame was always present in Roman culture, but it slowly came more and more to the forefront and eventually into Mediterranean culture today. In republican Rome, criminals had the doors to their houses burned as a public sign that a criminal was living there. Those who had been wronged could legally follow the criminal around, chanting and accusing him in public places. The concept of public shaming carried on into the Middle Ages, and even into Victorian England where criminals were put into stocks. These stocks were located in public places, so that the criminal would be known and shamed before all. Pillories were rife during the Victorian age, when those who were pilloried had to endure the shame of publicly having rotten vegetables thrown at them. Branding criminals was practiced in England until the eighteenth century. Brands were often placed on the hands or face, so that the criminals would be publicly shamed wherever they went. The major difference between east and west, however, is not the presence of the shame concept, but rather, the structure of society around either the group mentality or individualism. Eastern shame became much more powerful than western shaming activities, simply because in the east the shame rests on the persons group rather than the individual. Since many eastern society functions in a group setting, the whole group suffers rather than just the individual. If the crime is bad enough, the group itself may oust or, for a severe offense, kill the offender. In 1999 at least twenty-five women were killed to maintain the honor of their families in the country of Jordan. Hundreds of others were killed in countries like Egypt, Sudan, Syria, and Iran. In many countries where shame-based culture is predominant, the names of criminals and those being ousted from their families for shameful activities are publicly printed in the newspapers. In western countries we tend to isolate criminals from their surroundings, and then determine if they are guilty. Criminals are then locked away out of sight, rather than publicly shamed in stocks in the public square. Its interesting to notice that in the Crow Indian culture in North America, mocking of some one elses inappropriate behavior effects shaming. This is sometimes called buying-of-the-ways. If you imitate someone elses inappropriate behavior, you are buying his ways. In some cases a person actually offers money to buy someone elses inappropriate behavior. This is the ultimate shame. In many shame-based cultures, rather than encourage others, people criticize and question others. This is seen as positive, as it keeps them from becoming too proud. In the same way, Arabs are often quick to criticize leaders, especially elected ones, if they perceive that they are too ambitious or proud. They are sometimes publicly questioned or shamed, and often they leave public life. Even new language students discover that their neighbors are quick to point out that someone else speaks better than they do, or they are asked why they speak so poorly after being there for a whole four months! The criticism is often meant to keep them from being proud of how well they have done. Arabs understand that the criticism may be a compliment, but the poor westerner is often crushed. Clash of World Views As I mentioned earlier, there are three basic planes on which worldview, function. On each of these planes, there